the view from my kaleidoscope.

Presentation - 4th quarter.

2010-05-17T22:52:00.000-07:00

In the time of the Renaissance, hospitals were much different than we think of them. They earned a negative reputation due to the battlefield medicine which was not as sophisticated as hospitals in towns and communities.

Many advances were being made at this time. They had discovered different ways to perform certain surgeries and to medicate patients.
Ambroise Pare was the first person to use ligature to cease the bleeding of a wound. The traditional method was to use boiling oils or red hot pokers.
They also began to use herbs as another method of easing pains and killing off diseases.

Medicine was prescribed based on the system of the humors, there were four humors in the body and they were all connected to seasons, elements and astrological signs.

Black bile - earth - Autumn
Yellow bile - fire - Summer
Phlegm - water - Winter
Blood - all four elements - Spring

The use of herbs corresponded with this system and the success of herbs is attributed to this theory.

Hospitals at the time contained private wine cellars, manicured facilities, freshly cooked meals and spiritual healing. Visitors were treated with wine and food from the premises and could even choose the wine they’d like based on illness and appetite.

There is even a document from the 16th century that details care at the Santa Maria Nuova hospital in Florence. Patients there were able to simply ring a bell to alert someone that they wanted assistance. They were fed different dishes such as vegetables, bread, and chicken soup, all of which were prepared on the grounds of the hospitals. Some even had their own vegetable gardens just to feed their patients.

Source 1 / Source 2 / Source 3

Makeup blog. (for points.)

2009-12-07T16:51:00.000-08:00

The Second Crusade was started in 1145. It was the second of the crusades committed by Christians at the time. These Crusades were in efforts to take back their holy city, Jerusalem.
The Second Crusade was launched from Europe. As supported by Pope Eugene III, the soldiers departed after the loss of the county of Edessa to the forces of Zengi. This had occurred in the previous year. This county had been founded in the First Crusade.
This crusade was the first to ever be led by a European kings. Both Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany contributed to the Second Crusade. The two armies of these kings were separated for more fighting power. Some other European nobles were also played a role in this war.

"After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia,
both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks." (source)
"Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus secretly hindered the crusaders' progress,
particularly in Anatolia where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them.
Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and,
in 1148, participated in an ill-advised attack on Damascus.
The crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a great victory for the Muslims."
(same source.)

The Second Crusade, as the quote had explained, was a loss for the Christians. When the armies had divided, the war had spiraled downwards. Being defeated as a whole, it was made easier for the opponent to keep conquering.
Yet, this was not the last of the Crusades in the fight for the holy city. This was merely the second attempt. There were more to come in the hopes that Jerusalem would finally be back in their hands.

Renaissance Art.

2009-12-07T16:27:00.000-08:00

Renaissance art, to this day, is the carriage of some renown works. Equppied with artists such as Donatello and Leonardo Da Vinci, it has inspired both artwork and artists. Also, art at this time had a very distinct style.

"The Renaissance patrons wanted art that showed joy in human beauty and life’s pleasures." (source)

Renaissance art was used to portray beauty and is known as life-like Medieval art. The artists at this time were also known to observe perspective. They noticed the different levels, plains, and things like that. When the artists would reflect that on to a canvas, it seems to give the pictures depth. This style was first started by an artist from Florence. His name was Giotto.
One other distinction in art of this time is the mannerisms of the characters painted. They were painted in odd or distinct poses. This caused that figure to be the entire center of the piece. Also, most pieces seemed to have a religious or spiritual aspect to them.
For this reason, churches were the main galleries for art pieces. The church used them to display characteristics such as emotion or passion. (source) Also, in churches, we see alot of Gothic style architecture. Large, grand cathedrals and buildings. They also had certain types of columns they'd use. They would also use pilasters.
We see some of these styles in paintings done today. Also, in modern architecture, some of these styles are recreated. All of these ideas are passed down through time and modified slightly to fit the time period. Even Renaissance art had it's own unique beginning, just as the style before it.

The First Crusade.

2009-10-24T22:20:00.000-07:00

The First Crusade, one of the many, began on November 27, in the year 1095. This became ome of the many Crusades in the name of religion. This also started one of the most popular and widely misunderstood spiritual movements of all history.
Pope Urban II proclaimed this crusade through a document given to the church clergy and lay folk at the time. This took in a field at Clermont in Central France, and we don't exactly know what the pope said.

"There are no records of exactly what Urban said, but it seems he began with a general denouncement of the continual warfare which plagued the Europe of his day. He then described in lurid detail the attacks of the Turks upon the Christian Byzantine Empire, and begged the soldiers present to travel to the east to attack the Muslims, rather than their fellow Christians." (source)

Pope Urban wanted it the expedition to the Eastern region to be as military-like as possible.

"Pope Urban had wanted the expedition to the East to be a military one, undertaken by soldiers and controlled by clerics. But such was the appeal of his call for the liberation of the Eastern Church that soon tens of thousands of ordinary people were on the People's Crusade."
(same source)

There were many true and devoted Christians who were anxious to reclaim Jerusalem. In the name of their religion, they wanted all Muslims to leave their city. The Christians said that the Muslims were committing sins and they would be forgiven as a result of the Crusade. They also told the pope that if they were to be killed, their souls would automatically be sent to Heaven because they were fighting in the name of the Lord. (source)
The journey to the Eastern regions was a very difficult one. The Crusaders were unable to cross by sea, therefore, they were forced to cross by land. They fought through armies, battled weather, and even struggles with diseases. By the year 1097, about 10,000 people had gathered at Constantinople. They were ready for their journey into the Holy Land, Jerusalem, sparking the crusades to come.

Jihad.

2009-08-29T22:07:00.000-07:00

One of the worlds most popular religions is Islam. Founded by Muhammad around 620 A.D., Islam contains ideas, rules and concepts different than most. These concepts include the hajj, the Hegira and jihad.
Jihad is literally defined as "struggle in the way of God". This word can sometimes be translated as "holy war". This principle basically says that Muslims are to fight against all people who use idolatry and do not worship Allah. Daniel Pipes wrote an article on jihad for New York Post saying, "It means the legal, compulsory, communal effort to expand the territories ruled by Muslims at the expense of territories ruled by non-Muslims." (source)
The jihad grew out of the Arabic tradition of tribal rampages. Islamic followers would raid certain regions and countries in the name of Allah. These raids went on for over 100 years. It was finally stopped n Tours, France. They would raid these regions attempting convert anyone from another religion to convert to the Islamic religion.
Most Muslims believe that jihad is an everlasting war. They believe that it never ends. They may not be physically fighting for their religion, but they in a religious war to convert other religions to worshiping Allah. The jihad will continue until the end of existence, they believe.
Islam, being the number one religion in the world, is mainly this widespread because of jihad. They forced their ways and converted thousands upon thousands of people to the way of Allah. The jihad is not over, and I personally believe that as time goes on, the Islamic will only get pushed even more and become more widespread through the world.

The Just War Theory

2009-08-22T12:13:00.000-07:00

"True religion looks upon peaceful wars that are waged,
not for the motives of anggrandisement, or cruelty,
but with the object of securing peace, punishing those who do evil,
and supporting the good." Saint Augustine. (source)

Saint Augustine, referred to as the theologian of war, really pushed the Just War theory in his time. The principle of Just War basically deals with justifying why we fight wars and the way we fight, or should fight, them.
Saint Augustine was given a false title. In reality, he should be called the theologian of peace. He was not unfamiliar with violence, but he mourned the cruelty of war. He wrote letters against such cruelty. He hoped that this principle of justice would be adopted. One time, he even wrote, "it is better to kill war with words than human beings with swords." (source)
This theory basically says that war is fair and just when executed with right intentions, a just cause, and based on the military of both. All of these requirements are listed in the Jus ad bellum of the Just War theory. Once a war has begun, this theory also outlines how it shoud play out. These requirements are stated in what is called the Jus in bello. Last is the end of the war. There must a be a just cause to why the war is ending and good intentions in ending the war are required. Even truth and reconciliation can play a role in the end of the war. The full list is called the Jus post bellum.
Just War is pretty much the keeping of peace through controlled and fair fighting. Without a principle like this, wars would have destroyed us a long time ago. Civilizations would have been crushed. Without Just War, our world would be chaos.

Current Events blog-Islam Day (Hawaii)

2009-05-08T19:17:00.000-07:00

On the islands of Hawaii, the Hawaiian legislature decided to declare September 24th of every year, Islam Day. Despite being a small slam to other religions, is this a clear breech of the First Constitutional Amendment? Or just appreciation for a favored religion?

Islam Day clearly is appreciation for a certain religion. What's wrong with that? To answer that question, it's wrong because they do not have a "Christianity Day", a "Buddhist Day", or a "Zoroastrianism Day." If they are going to tolerate this religion, they need to tolerate all of the others. They take Christianity out of schools and give the Muslim religion it's own holiday?

This also goes against the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. This Amendment reads;

"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances."

Notice the first fragment. Islam Day is a clear establishment of a religion. Yes, appreciation surely is okay but this move seems to be the establishment of a certain religion in the Hawaiian government and among it's civilization.

I certainly can appreciate that they have respect for this religion. Even if I personally believe that it is false, I will respect it and it's followers. Yet, this is crossing a line. If you are going to respect one, you should respect all. Religious tolerance is not religious favoritism.

Not only is this one person's opinion but it's fact. The First Amendment clearly states that their can be no establishment of a certain religion among a state. Yet, this favoritism seems to be that way. Just as we have days for our leaders, Hawaii now has a day for it's religion. This may not be true, but it certainly has come across that way.

Roman and Greek Pantheon

2009-03-05T19:53:00.000-08:00

in progress

Greek mythology is full of gods and goddessses. These divine creatures were constantly intervening the lives of the humans they governed. They were all unique and had different aspects of life that they governed. Some controlled the air, the sun and the ocean, while others were in control of things like love, fertility, marriage and harvest.
The Roman gods/goddesses were no different. They had some of the same exact gods just different names. Here are a few examples;

Greek name: Zeus. Roman name: Jove. He was the king of all gods and ruler of the sky and human destiny.
Greek name: Hera. Roman name: Juno. Queen of the gods, goddess of marriage.
Greek name: Ares. Roman name: Mars. One of the most famous gods, god of war and son of Zeus (Jove).
Last one. Greek name: Artemis. Roman name: Diana.

These are just a few of the gods and goddesses that are shared by both Greek and Roman religions. Despit their many similarities, there are alot of differences. In Greek mythology, things such as The Iliad and The Odyssey, the epic poems written by Homer. Greek gods were much more aggressive and intervended in different ways than the Roman gods. Take the Odyssey for example, Athena is constantly with Oddysseus on his journey home, in a human form. Also, the gods of Greece constantly picked favorites to bless and motal enemies to curse.
The Roman gods were much different. They did less intervening and play the Favorites Game a little less. They did things such as send thunderstorms or floods upon the humans. Signs like these would show the mortals that they were doing something wrong or impeech/gove more power to a ruler.
The differences and similarities are not so vast between the two. It seems as if they adopted their prinicples off of eachother. Both religions are polytheistic and both seems kind of seem like nothing but mythology.

2009-03-02T16:43:00.001-08:00

Compare/Contrast Roman and Greek gods.

Art of Ancient Rome - 3/01/09

2009-02-28T17:00:00.001-08:00

in progress.

Roman art, the type that was used in ancient times, is still practiced today. We see the basic principles of their art in our architecture, our statuary, all forms of art.
Roman art came from Etruscan art. It is also closely related to Greek art. One difference is that Greek art was interested in ideals; perfection, proportions, and beauty. Whereas Roman art and sculpture was kind of like painting a portrait. Meaning, they were interested in making it look exactly like the person, especially if they were famous or help some sort of power.
Pottery was another form of art. Britishmuseum.org says that Rome developed a very unique style of pottery. Most pottery had a shiny, reddish finish to it. This finish was called "terra sigillata", which literally means "sealed or slipped clay." Some pottery ranged in color. Such as; black, grey, yellow, brown and, as mentioned, red.
Another form of art was their friezes. Friezes are wall decorations, in a sense. They are carve directly into stone. At that time, they usually them in ancient ruins of important government buildings.
were portraits of great leaders. Sometimes they were portraits of battles and wars. They are usually carved into great temples or we can find The accurate and unique beauty of Roman art is what makes it a lasting pleasure. Today, we can find find remainders of Roman art in Ancient Rome's ruins, places such as the Colosseum, and even in museums. Yet, the true beauty of Roman art lies in its last architecture.

How did the Greeks change architecture for the following generations?

2008-12-05T23:48:00.000-08:00

The Greeks were said to be the masters of art and architecture. The Greeks not only created beautiful works but they revolutionized architecture for following generations. With examples such as the Parthenon and a few of the temples, who wouldn't want to follow in the footsteps of these mastermind architects?

One example is in the pillars they used to support their buildings. Many college campuses and government buildings have these kinds of columns at their entrances, just as the Greeks had done. A perfect example would be our capitol or the White House. Both structures have jagged pillars holding up themselves.

Another example is the use of marble. Before that time, the main building material was a stone found in the mountains or one made of a mud – clay type mixture. The Greeks really introduced marble in to the building world. Most of todays prominent structures are made of marble.

The last example is the friezes carved into the temples in Greece. These friezes are found all over Greece, Egypt, and parts of Europe. Many can be found in college campuses all over the country, along with government buildings and museums and other places such as those.

As you can see, Greek architecture has made quite an impact on the way buildings and structures such as have been designed today. From college campuses to government buildings to ancient temples, the Greeks took part in it all, one way or another.

Ancient Greek Art

2008-11-21T16:29:00.001-08:00

Ancient Greece is not only known for its architecture, military tactics, and intriguing history. It is also known for its art and sculpting. The Greeks had a very distinct style of art, recognized by all.
The first thing about Greek art and sculpture is the look of their bodies. Greeks depicted the people they drew or sculpted as perfect. Six pack abs and perfect proportions. Long and flowing hair for women. They wanted to be pictured as a generation of beautiful, strong, and intellectual individuals and they used their art to do that.
Another distinct feature of Greek art is the colors and stone. Most Greek sculptures or stone carvings were made of marble. On things such as pottery and painting, they used colors su ch as orange and black. This gave almost an Egyptian feel to paintings and such.
Most time in this kind of art, we see younger people. Also, they were usually naked with a smirk on their face. In many Greek paintings, they also represented some sort of sexuality. The Greeks were a very sexual society obsessed with human perfection. They also had many scenes from glorious battles of men with spears, swords and large metal shields, showing the sheer power of Grecian society.
As you can see, there are many different aspects of Greeks art. All of these different aspects make Greek art recognizable and very powerful.

Why was the era of Pericles so important in Greek History?

2008-11-08T14:42:00.000-08:00

Pericles was the Athenian ruler at the apex of Athenian society. He was put in power after Themistocles. During his reign, he built up Athens and made significant alteration to the Delian League.
Pericles was born in 495 B.C.. He was raised in an upper-class environment. Surrounded by nobility and wealth, Pericles was inspired to pursue higher education. In his time, he was able to train with some of Greek's best scholars and philosophers. At this time, education was at its highest.
Also in his time, many military advances were made. With the massive navy that had recently been built and many victories under former ruler Themistocles, Athens made astounding military advances. Pericles took part in wars such as The First Peloponnesian War, Second Sacred War, and the Samian War.
Also, while he was in power, Pericles built up Athens. He embarked on a massive construction project, including full employment (meaning; jobs for almost everyone). At this time was when the Parthenon was built. The Parthenon was the temple to Athena, the virgin. This temple marked the apex of Athenian power, it was the ultimate display of Athens greatness under Pericles.
Pericles ruled for about 15 years. In 129 B.C., at about age 65, Pericles died. But, he did leave a legacy. Marking the Apex of Athens, he is revered as one of early Greeks greatest rulers.

Test Essay - backup.

2008-10-06T17:32:00.000-07:00

Test Essay.

Hatshesput was an accomplished female ruler in Ancient Egypt's 18_th dynasty. She was probably the fifth ruler to take the throne at this time. Her greatest achievements include the disguise that she had fooled a nation with, her introduction to trading versus large armies and advanced war tactics, and her building projects.
Hatshesput's first major accomplishment is the large trick she had played on her entire nation. At that time, female rulers weren't as revered as males. She wanted to endure a long. Powerful reign, therefore, she has disguised herself as a male pharaoh. Despite the physical problems with that, she managed to play it out. No one had discovered that she was a woman until many years after she had died.
The second significant accomplishment was her successful trading. In the past, Egypt was successful because of its army and its advanced military techniques, lead by the pharaoh. Because she wanted to keep her gender a secret, it was clear that Hatshesput could not lead the army. She then decided to make Egypt successful in another area, trade. Egypt had much to offer other nations and other nations had much to offer Egypt. Her plan was later disrupted when the Hyksos occupied Egypt.
Her last great accomplishment was her building projects. Hatshesput had conducted a series of projects during her reign. Such as introducing obelisks and her very own mortuary temple, the Djeser-Djeseru. This tomb was carved into the mountains and has courtyards and stone carvings along the site ground. This mortuary temple is located in the Valley of the Kings, opposite the city of Luxor. A few other things she had built were the Temple of Pakhet, momunments at the Temple of Karnak, and the broken obelisk, now known as the Unfinished Obelisk.
Hatshesput's greatest achievements are her disguise which lengthened her reign. Also, her introduction of trade versus war. Plus, the last great one, her significant building jobs. These all made her reign very important to the shaping Ancient Egypt.

Tomb of Hatshepsut

2008-10-05T13:27:00.000-07:00

(Read Egyptologist Zahi Hawass's views on the mummy and tomb of Hateshepsut here.)

The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut is located at Deir el-Bhari. Dier el-Bhari is a complex of tombs located opposite the city of Luxor. The temple, titled Djeser-Djeseru ("Splendor of Splendors"), is the focal point of this complex. (source)
Hatshesput was the 5th pharoah to rule in Egypts 18th dyansty. She was one of the most successful pharaohs, as said by most Egyptologists. This is because she ruled longer than any female ruler Egypt had ever seen. Another unique aspect about her reign is that she disguised hersalf as a man. She imposed as a male pharaoh for her entire reign because female rulers were looked down upon at that time.
Hatshepsut composed a large series of building projects while she was in power. One her most signifacant projects being her own mortuary temple, Djeser-Djeseru. This tomb had been built in in the cliffs to detour grave robbers. Yet, the actaul tomb itself had the same layout as most temples located in the Valley of Kings. Once you pass through the entrance, you will reach a door leading to the first corridor of the tomb. This leads to an antechamber, another corridor and then the actual burial chamber, which was never finished. (source)
A 100foot courtyard surrounded the entrance of the tomb, consisting of three smaller courtyards. These courtyards have many stone carvings in them. Most of the carvings of the queen herself were destroyed by her stepson and some of his workers. These courtyards were once filled with trees and lush gardens, and even a man-made oasis. Another unique aspect of this tomb is the fact that if you stood on the cliff above the tomb and looked onto the temple, you would see the Egyptian hieroglyphic for Nun. (source)
Hatshepssuts tomb was found by Howard Carter in 1916. He was alerted at night when he heard what sounded like grave robbers. When he reached the work site, he found the looters at work. The robbers were then scared away but what they were looting led to the discovery of the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.

Tutankhamun. (in progress)

2008-09-26T15:46:00.000-07:00

Tutankhamun, or King Tut, is most likely the most famous Egyptian ruler. His name is renown beyond Egypt, and he even has his own exhibit. It is believed that Tutankhamun ruled Egypt between 1334 and 1325 BC. He was probably the 12th ruler of Egypt's 18th Dynasty.
Tutankahmun (Tut) was not given that name at birth. His father, Akhenaten, named him Tutankhaten, after himself and the god of the sun disk. Tut changed his name in the second year of his name to Tutankhamen to show reverance to Amun, his main god. Another thing that his father did that he changed was the introduction of monotheism. He did not believe in this as his father did.
He was only a young boy, so his reign was taken over by advisors. Older, wiser officials told him what to do and led him in the right direction. He restored all the temples his father destroyed. And was the keeper of peace.
At age 18, he was murdered. Many people believe that this is what happened because his skull was smashed and only one person was close enough to hurt him. His reign was not exactly significant, he is most famous for his tomb and artifacts which were virtually intact. Most tombs fell to grave robbers. His tomb was found by an archaelogoist named Howard Carter in 1922. His grave was located in the Valley of Kings.
King Tutankhamen has a rather famous name. A museum exhibit, numerous websites and extra special care for his artifacts are just a few tributes to this great king. His reign will be renown for years to come.

Ramses II

2008-09-19T18:49:00.000-07:00

Ramses II is one of the most renown pharaohs of his time. He was the third pharaoh that ruled during the 19th dynasty. Ramses II has been known for his expansive building projects. He also know for his importance in the book of Exodus in the Bible.
Ramses II was born to Queen Tuy and King Seti I. At around age 20 he was given the throne. During his reign, he was determined to overthrow territory in Africa and Western Asia. After a long time of fighting, a treaty was produced. Then, Ramses II agreed to marry the daughter of the Hittite king as a part of the treaty.
Another aspect that popularized his reign was his love for architecture and his lust for power. This caused him to build many monuments and temples such as the temple of Abu Simbel. And some of his more famous work would be the Luxor and the Karnak. These monuments were symbols of his wealth and power. He made it very clear that he was going to make a mark on history.
After reigning for 67 years, Ramses II died. His tomb was located in the Valley of the Kings and remains empty but, it has been looted and a victim of erosion. Therefore, it is in bad shape, many efforts have been made to get it to a somewhat presentable stage. Although his tomb remains empty, the body has been found. This mummy has been classified as one of the best preserved bodies ever found by archaeologists.
Ramses II was a great ruler in his time. Accomplishing much, he most likely died with a lightened heart. He has out his stamp on history. Ramses II is a rather popular topic when discussing Ancient History.

SOURCES;
http://www.kingtutone.com/pharaohs/ramses2/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II
http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/treaty.htm
http://www.fruitofthenile.com/ramses.htm
http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/2815/ramses.html
Oakes, Lorna, Gahlin, Lucia. Ancient Egypt,
Amnes Publishing Limited: New York, 2003.
Hart, Dr. George. Discoveries: Ancient Egypt,
Fog City Press: San Fransisco, 2003.

Pharoah Akhenaten.

2008-09-12T16:44:00.000-07:00

Pharaoh Akhenaten was a great ruler of Egypt, in the 18th dynasty. He is best known for the introduction of monotheism in a polytheistic culture. Akhenaten was also also an object of controversy because of his strange mannerism, rumors about his daughter, and his peculiar appearance. This man was very influential in Egypt and is still well-known among historians today.
Akhenaten originally grew up as Amenhotep IV, named after his father Amenhotep III. Amenhotep III was also a pharaoh and his mother was Queen Tiy, making this famly was a royal dynasty. He went by his birth name until the 5th year of his reign. He changed his name to Akhenaten, "horizon of the sun". Setting himself up to be depicted as close the sun disk, Aten. Akhenaten revered the sun disk with such reverence, he decided to close off all other temples and exculde all gods except Aten, intorducing montheism. (source)
This man was also an object of controversy because of his peculiar appearance in art. He was potrayed as having very slender limbs, wide hips, and a proturding stomach which gave the appearance that he was a woman disguised as a man or was born with an intersex condition. Until his mummy was located and researched, no one knew if these abnormalities were literal or not.
At the beginning of his reign, he was married to Nefertiti and had six known daughters; Meretaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaatan (later the Queen Of Tutankahmen, Neferneferuaten-Tasherit, Neferneferure, and Setepenre. He was alo married to a women named Kiya and it has been rumored that his daughter Ankhesenpaatan gave birth to a child of his.
Ahkenaten was a great and peculiar ruler, with quite a lasting effect. His introduction of monotheism was undone at the end of his reign and years later his mummy was found. Ending the story of Pharaoh Akhenaten was his death, which no one is sure of the cause. This interesting man had a lasting affect on Egypt.

online book summary, no publisher/date/city. http://www.heptune.com/art.html
movie source.

The Great Pyramids of Giza.

2008-08-29T18:35:00.000-07:00

Think about Egypt. What comes to mind? The dry, golden desert sand, the flowing Nile River, the great Sphinx, elaborate costumes and culture, and the great Pyramids of Giza (also known as the Giza Necropolis). These marvelous wonders have enduring through time and erosion and radiate power and beauty still today. But, how were magnificent artifacts built? Why are they so important to Egyptian culture? And most importantly, what are they for?

"From atop these pyramids, forty centuries look down upon you."
- Napoleon Bonaparte, 1798

The Great Pyramids are made up of three main pyramids and are surrounded by many littler ones. the three main ones are; Kahfre, Kuhfu and Menkaure. These great monuments of Egyptian culture are located only a few miles away from the city of Cairo. Egypt has built up around them, they have been standing for hundreds of years. These pyramids are the last of the 7 wonders of the world. (Haffner)

In ancient Egypt, Pharaohs ruled with an iron fist and were revered in the highest. These leaders were the shapers of ancient Egypt. The second that these men were in power, the first commanded to have a grand burial site built. A grand site, such as the pyramids. These pyramids are full of artifacts and sarcophagi. The pyramids are temples of the after life. (Speilvogel, 37)
Originally, the pyramids were covered in a shiny limestone. This smooth surface reflected the sun and caused the pyramids to look
heavenly. Most of this covering has been has been disintegrated or has been stolen. The only remaining limestone is on top of the pyramid of Kuhfu and even that has been battling with erosion. These pyramids were made of stacked stones, giving way to a pyramid shape.

"Packing blocks are stacked until the dimensions were right, and then finishing blocks (usually limestone) were the last touch." (source)

In conclusion, these grand structures have passed the test of time and are still admired and revered today. Without these pyramids, Egyptian culture wouldn't be the same. These artifacts are full of mystery and wonder, there is so much to be learned from these magnificent stone monuments.

Haffner, Craig and Donna E. Lusitana. Mummies and the Wonders of Ancient Egypt. A&E Television Network: New York, 1996.

Speilvogel, Jackson J. World History; The Human Odyssey. National Textbook Company: Illinois. (no date given)